Croatian Military Tradition

Croatian generals in World War I
Despite peace and a peaceful life being a part of core human wishes and thinking, history is, in reality, marked by continuous warfare. Croatian history is not an exception to the rule as it is also marked by countless wars that devastated Croatian territory or by Croatian soldiers and generals fighting wars far beyond the Croatian borders. It is enough to remember the 20th century when Croats and Croatia were exposed to the destruction of three wars – World War I, World War II and the Croatian War of Independence.

A great number of Croatian soldiers sacrificed themselves in all these wars. Whether it is the Croatian military or Croatian soldiers as a part of another military, many of them have distinguished themselves with feats on the battlefield or gained glory as a successful general.

The year 2024 marks the 110th anniversary of World War I, a significant anniversary that will echo throughout many countries that played a role in that war. Among the Croatian generals of World War I, one name that undoubtedly stands out is the field marshal Svetozar Boroević von Bojna. The names of the other generals are Anton Lipošćak, Maximilian Njegovan and Janko Vuković Podkapelski.

Field marshal Svetozar Boroević (1856 – 1920)
He was born in the village of Umetić next to Hrvatska Kostajnica and committed himself to the army at a young age. Having been born to an Orthodox family, he was later considered to be a Serb. He declared himself as a Croat and was undoubtedly a Croatian officer and a general. He joined the armed forces of the then Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1872 and as a well-educated officer he advanced for decades and was promoted to his first general rank having become a major general in 1904. He was in command of the 6th Corps in Košice and a vice marshal when World War I started. His war path started with the aforementioned 6th Corps in Galicia and he proved himself in the autumn of 1914. In early September 1914, he became the commander of the Third Army and not only did he stop the Russian breach, but he also denied the Russians and established a battlefield line. Boroević was transferred to a newly opened battlefield as a commander of the Fifth Army after Italy attacked Austria-Hungary at the end of May 1915. Despite the thinking of the Austro-Hungarian highest-ranked officers that defending the attacked territory is impossible as well as their plans to surrender a significant part of the present-day Slovenian territory, Boroević thought that the defense is possible and accepted the battle. In doing so, he especially relied on Slovenian, but also the Croatian soldiers, who were determined to battle against the Italian claim over their territory. That brought him great popularity among the Slovenes and Croats. At the established Isonzo front, Boroević managed to deny 11 Italian rushes in fierce and especially bloody battles despite having a significantly weaker army. He was nicknamed "Lion of Isonzo" due to his feats. On 1 February 1918 he was promoted to the highest rank – field marshal.

During the collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of October and the start of November 1918, Boroević was still the commander on the battlefield against Italy. The only thing left for him to try on such occasions was to ensure a safe retreat of his troops back to the old Austria-Hungary borders after which he retreated to Koruška. After the Empire collapsed, he submitted an application for acquiring citizenship of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, but it was declined and he was also forbidden to return home because he was an unwanted high-ranking officer of the former Empire. Shortly thereafter on 23 May 1920, he died from the effects of a stroke. His final resting place is the arcades at the Central Cemetery in Vienna.

Anton Lipošćak (1863 – 1924)
He was born into a Croatian military family and joined the military on his own will. He graduated from Theresianum in 1883, a prestige military academy in Wiener Neustadt, and served as a lieutenant in the 53rd Infantry Regiment in Zagreb. Although he served in different regiments across the Empire, a significant part of his military service is related to serving in regiments in Croatia. In 1910, he was promoted to his first general rank – major general.

He was in the 10th Corps as a commander of the 2nd Infantry Division when World War I started. In the autumn of 1914, he led his division in heavy battles against what is today southeast Poland and in the Carpathians. From October 1915 to February 1916 and from March to June 1917, he successfully commanded the 42nd Home Guard Infantry Division (the Devil's Division) on the Eastern Front. In June of 1917, he assumed command of the battalion on the same front (Lipošćak Group), subsequently the 9th Corps. Lastly, he was appointed the Austro-Hungarian Governor-General of Poland, specifically of present-day Polish Southeast which comprised the Austro-Hungarian zone in the just declared Kingdom of Poland, where Lipošćak left a good impression on Polish citizens. Following the collapse of the Empire, he resigned from that position at the start of November 1918. He came to Zagreb when the war ended, but as an inappropriate high-ranking officer of the collapsed Empire, he was arrested under accusations of conspiring against the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. However, he was quickly released and he continued to live in Zagreb until his death in 1924.

Maximillian Njegovan (1858 – 1930)
Born in Zagreb, Maximilian Njegovan chose to be a naval officer. After having finished the Naval Academy in Rijeka, he traveled to North and South America as a cadet in 1877. In the following decades, he served as an officer on different ships and performed different headquarters duties. In 1911, he was promoted to his first admiral rank – counter admiral.

After Italy joined World War I, he was celebrated and decorated for his naval attack on port Ancona and its coastal defense infrastructure. In February 1917, he assumed command of the Austro-Hungarian Navy and already in May of the same year distinguished himself by attempting to breach Allied naval blockade of the Strait of Otranto. Despite that undertaking, Njegovan was aware of the sensitive position his Navy was in, which is why he strove to preserve forces by avoiding unnecessary clashes and losses in direct battles. The Navy was also struck by shortage of food and fuel which affected its combat preparedness. Still, Austro-Hungarian Navy was an important factor on the Adriatic Sea, especially its submarines, and it was connected to significant Italian naval forces.

Njegovan became unpopular among the highest-ranked military officers of the Empire and the Emperor Charles I (IV) because of his passive commanding of the Austro-Hungarian fleet, despite that being the reason of its survival. Consequently, his command was replaced after a famous mutiny led by Bay of Kotor sailors because they recognized that the Navy's weakness was the command's fault. He simultaneously retired and returned to native Zagreb following the collapse of the Empire. He died there in 1930.

Janko Vuković Podkapelski (1871 – 1918)
Born in Jezerane in Lika, Janko Vuković Podkapelski chose to be a naval officer. After having finished the Naval Academy in Rijeka, he became a cadet in the Austro-Hungarian submarine in 1889. In the following years he served on different ships and in the years leading up to World War I he was in command of different ships.

He was captain of a destroyer Csepel and frigate captain when World War I started. He distinguished himself after Italy joined the war. In a battle at the Gargano Peninsula at the end of May 1915, a group of ships under his command inflicted heavy losses upon the Italians while sinking one of their destroyers. In the following two years, he commanded the battleship Babenberg and the scout cruiser Admiral Spaun and distinguished himself by damaging or sinking many Allied ships in many battles.

In early March 1918, he assumed command of the commanding ship of the Navy, a battleship called Viribus Unitis. He was in that position and also a captain of the battleship in the days of the scattered Empire and the scattered Navy. Riots and strife struck the crew of his Viribus Unitis. At the same time, it became clear that surrendering the armed forces to the Allies would mean surrendering the fleet to Italy. As a means to stop that, Emperor Charles I (IV) decided to surrender the fleet and all the war ports to the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs in Zagreb on 31 October. Fleet handover to the National Council was done on the same day in Pula, and Janko Vuković Podkapelski assumed command as a counter admiral. Even though Vuković informed the Allied forces that the earlier Austro-Hungarian Navy was now in the hands of the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, Italian saboteurs planted an explosive under the hull of Viribus Unitis the following night. Although two of the saboteurs were caught, after it became apparent that the ship was mined and that there would be an explosion, Vuković allowed the saboteurs and the crew to abandon Viribus Unitis in order to save themselves.

After the explosion echoed and the ship started sinking in the early morning on 1 November 1918, Vuković remained on the ship and there were indications that he attempted to save as many sailors as possible. It is unclear what exactly happened and whether Vuković was trying to save them or decided as a captain to sink with his ship. The fact is that he died following the sinking of his ship.

dr. sc. Mario Jareb, scientific advisor
Croatian Institute of History